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The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation that most commonly includes both visible radiation (light) and infrared radiation, which is not visible to human eyes. A portion of the thermal radiation from very hot objects (see photograph) is easily visible to the eye.
The emissivity of a surface depends on its chemical composition and geometrical structure. Quantitatively, it is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an black body at the same temperature as given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law. (A comparison with Planck's law is used if one is concerned with particular wavelengths of thermal radiation.) The ratio varies from 0 to 1.
The surface of a perfect black body (with an emissivity of 1) emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square metre (W/m) at a room temperature of .
Objects have emissivities less than 1.0, and emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates.The Stefan–Boltzmann law is that the rate of emission of thermal radiation is σT4, where σ = 5.67×10−8 W/m2·K4, and the temperature T is in . See
However, wavelength- and subwavelength-scale particles, , and other nanostructures may have an emissivity greater than 1.
However, the most commonly used form of emissivity is the hemispherical total emissivity, which considers emissions as totaled over all wavelengths, directions, and polarizations, given a particular temperature. (1992). 9780891162711, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780891162711
Some specific forms of emissivity are detailed below.
where
\varepsilon_\nu &= \frac{M_{\mathrm{e},\nu}}{M_{\mathrm{e},\nu}^\circ}, \\
\varepsilon_\lambda &= \frac{M_{\mathrm{e},\lambda}}{M_{\mathrm{e},\lambda}^\circ},
\end{align}
where
where
\varepsilon_{\nu,\Omega} &= \frac{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\nu}}{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\nu}^\circ}, \\
\varepsilon_{\lambda,\Omega} &= \frac{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\lambda}}{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\lambda}^\circ},
\end{align}
where
Hemispherical emissivity can also be expressed as a weighted average of the directional spectral emissivities as described in textbooks on "radiative heat transfer".
Emissivity measurements for many surfaces are compiled in many handbooks and texts. Some of these are listed in the following table.
Notes:
With the exception of bare, polished metals, the appearance of a surface to the eye is not a good guide to emissivities near room temperature. For example, white paint absorbs very little visible light. However, at an infrared wavelength of 10×10−6 metre, paint absorbs light very well, and has a high emissivity. Similarly, pure water absorbs very little visible light, but water is nonetheless a strong infrared absorber and has a correspondingly high emissivity.
The term emissivity is generally used to describe a simple, homogeneous surface such as silver. Similar terms, emittance and thermal emittance, are used to describe thermal radiation measurements on complex surfaces such as insulation products.
For Earth, equilibrium skin temperatures range near the freezing point of water, 260±50 K (-13±50 °C, 8±90 °F). The most energetic emissions are thus within a band spanning about 4-50 μm as governed by Planck's law.
Upper and lower limits have been measured and calculated for εa in accordance with extreme yet realistic local conditions. At the upper limit, dense low cloud structures (consisting of liquid/ice aerosols and saturated water vapor) close the infrared transmission windows, yielding near to black body conditions with εa≈1. At a lower limit, clear sky (cloud-free) conditions promote the largest opening of transmission windows. The more uniform concentration of long-lived trace greenhouse gases in combination with water vapor pressures of 0.25-20 mbar then yield minimum values in the range of εa=0.55-0.8 (with ε=0.35-0.75 for a simulated water-vapor-only atmosphere). Carbon dioxide () and other greenhouse gases contribute about ε=0.2 to εa when atmospheric humidity is low. Researchers have also evaluated the contribution of differing cloud types to atmospheric absorptivity and emissivity.
These days, the detailed processes and complex properties of radiation transport through the atmosphere are evaluated by general circulation models using radiation transport codes and databases such as MODTRAN/HITRAN. Emission, absorption, and scattering are thereby simulated through both space and time.
For many practical applications it may not be possible, economical or necessary to know all emissivity values locally. "Effective" or "bulk" values for an atmosphere or an entire planet may be used. These can be based upon remote sensing observations (from the ground or outer space) or defined according to the simplifications utilized by a particular model. For example, an effective global value of εa≈0.78 has been estimated from application of an idealized single-layer-atmosphere energy-balance model to Earth.
Emissivities of common surfaces
Emissivities ε can be measured using simple devices such as Leslie's cube in conjunction with a thermal radiation detector such as a thermopile or a bolometer. The apparatus compares the thermal radiation from a surface to be tested with the thermal radiation from a nearly ideal, black sample. The detectors are essentially black absorbers with very sensitive thermometers that record the detector's temperature rise when exposed to thermal radiation. For measuring room temperature emissivities, the detectors must absorb thermal radiation completely at infrared near 10×10−6 metre.For a truly black object, the spectrum of its thermal radiation peaks at the wavelength given by Wien's Law: λmax = b/ T, where the temperature T is in kelvins and the constant b ≈ 2.90×10−3 metre-kelvins. Room temperature is about 293 kelvins. Sunlight itself is thermal radiation originating from the hot surface of the Sun. The Sun's surface temperature of about 5800 kelvins corresponds well to the peak wavelength of sunlight, which is at the green wavelength of about 0.5×10−6 metres. See Visible light has a wavelength range of about 0.4–0.7×10−6 metre from violet to deep red.
(2025). 9781933742564, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ISBN 9781933742564 "IP" refers to inch and pound units; a version of the handbook with metric units is also available. Emissivity is a simple number, and doesn't depend on the system of units.
Aluminium foil 0.03 Aluminium, anodized 0.9The visible color of an anodized aluminum surface does not strongly affect its emissivity. See Aluminium, smooth, polished 0.04 Aluminium, rough, oxidized 0.2 Asphalt concrete 0.88 Brick 0.90 Concrete, rough 0.91 Copper, polished 0.04 Copper, oxidized 0.87 Glass, smooth uncoated 0.95 Ice 0.97-0.99 Iron, polished 0.06 Limestone 0.92 Marble, polished 0.89–0.92 Nitrogen or Oxygen gas layer, pure ~0 Paint, including white 0.9 Paper, roofing or white 0.88–0.86 Plaster, rough 0.89 Silver, polished 0.02 Silver, oxidized 0.04 Skin, human 0.97–0.999 Snow 0.8–0.9 Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) 0.85 Transition metal (e.g. MoSi2 or WSi2) 0.86–0.93 Vegetation 0.92-0.96 Water, pure 0.96
Closely related properties
Absorptance
There is a fundamental relationship (Gustav Kirchhoff's 1859 law of thermal radiation) that equates the emissivity of a surface with its absorption of incident radiation (the "absorptivity" of a surface). Kirchhoff's law is rigorously applicable with regard to the spectral directional definitions of emissivity and absorptivity. The relationship explains why emissivities cannot exceed 1, since the largest absorptivity—corresponding to complete absorption of all incident light by a truly black object—is also 1. Mirror-like, metallic surfaces that reflect light will thus have low emissivities, since the reflected light isn't absorbed. A polished silver surface has an emissivity of about 0.02 near room temperature. Black soot absorbs thermal radiation very well; it has an emissivity as large as 0.97, and hence soot is a fair approximation to an ideal black body. Table of emissivities provided by a company; no source for these data is provided.
Emittance
Emittance (or emissive power) is the total amount of thermal energy emitted per unit area per unit time for all possible wavelengths. Emissivity of a body at a given temperature is the ratio of the total emissive power of a body to the total emissive power of a perfectly black body at that temperature. Following Planck's law, the total energy radiated increases with temperature while the peak of the emission spectrum shifts to shorter wavelengths. The energy emitted at shorter wavelengths increases more rapidly with temperature. For example, an ideal blackbody in thermal equilibrium at , will emit 97% of its energy at wavelengths below .
Measurement of Emittance
Emittance of a surface can be measured directly or indirectly from the emitted energy from that surface. In the direct radiometric method, the emitted energy from the sample is measured directly using a spectroscope such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In the indirect calorimetric method, the emitted energy from the sample is measured indirectly using a calorimeter. In addition to these two commonly applied methods, inexpensive emission measurement technique based on the principle of two-color pyrometry.
Emissivities of planet Earth
The emissivity of a planet or other astronomical body is determined by the composition and structure of its outer skin. In this context, the "skin" of a planet generally includes both its semi-transparent atmosphere and its non-gaseous surface. The resulting radiative emissions to space typically function as the primary cooling mechanism for these otherwise isolated bodies. The balance between all other incoming plus internal sources of energy versus the outgoing flow regulates planetary temperatures.
(2025). 9780972903318, Sundog Publ.. ISBN 9780972903318 Emissivities for the atmosphere and surface components are often quantified separately, and validated against satellite- and terrestrial-based observations as well as laboratory measurements. These emissivities serve as parametrizations within some simpler meteorlogic and climatologic models.
Surface
Earth's surface emissivities (εs) have been inferred with satellite-based instruments by directly observing surface thermal emissions at nadir through a less obstructed atmospheric window spanning 8-13 μm. Values range about εs=0.65-0.99, with lowest values typically limited to the most barren desert areas. Emissivities of most surface regions are above 0.9 due to the dominant influence of water; including oceans, land vegetation, and snow/ice. Globally averaged estimates for the hemispheric emissivity of Earth's surface are in the vicinity of εs=0.95.
Atmosphere
Water also dominates the planet's atmospheric emissivity and absorptivity in the form of water vapor. Clouds, carbon dioxide, and other components make substantial additional contributions, especially where there are gaps in the water vapor absorption spectrum. Nitrogen () and oxygen () - the primary atmospheric components - interact less significantly with thermal radiation in the infrared band. Direct measurement of Earths atmospheric emissivities (εa) are more challenging than for land surfaces due in part to the atmosphere's multi-layered and more dynamic structure.
Effective emissivity due to atmosphere
The IPCC reports an outgoing thermal radiation flux (OLR) of 239 (237–242) W m and a surface thermal radiation flux (SLR) of 398 (395–400) W m, where the parenthesized amounts indicate the 5-95% confidence intervals as of 2015. These values indicate that the atmosphere (with clouds included) reduces Earth's overall emissivity, relative to its surface emissions, by a factor of 239/398 ≈ 0.60. In other words, emissions to space are given by where is the effective emissivity of Earth as viewed from space and is the effective temperature of the surface.
History
The concepts of emissivity and absorptivity, as properties of matter and radiation, appeared in the late-eighteenth thru mid-nineteenth century writings of Pierre Prévost, John Leslie, Balfour Stewart and others. In 1860, Gustav Kirchhoff published a mathematical description of their relationship under conditions of thermal equilibrium (i.e. Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation). By 1884 the emissive power of a perfect blackbody was inferred by Josef Stefan using John Tyndall's experimental measurements, and derived by Ludwig Boltzmann from fundamental statistical principles. Emissivity, defined as a further proportionality factor to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, was thus implied and utilized in subsequent evaluations of the radiative behavior of grey bodies. For example, Svante Arrhenius applied the recent theoretical developments to his 1896 investigation of Earth's surface temperatures as calculated from the planet's radiative equilibrium with all of space. By 1900 Max Planck empirically derived a generalized law of blackbody radiation, thus clarifying the emissivity and absorptivity concepts at individual wavelengths.
Other radiometric coefficients
See also
Further reading
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